What Is Used To Study The Behavior Of Plankton Before They Invented The Autonomous Robotic Cameras

Abstract

The organisms that live in the ocean range in size and blazon from microscopic plankton that use sunlight to produce energy to big whales that eat other microbes and animals for fuel. These organisms coexist in a vast ocean that covers nearly three quarters of the World'due south surface. Scientists who study the ocean face a challenge when they endeavour to count and describe all of these unlike types of organisms: how can they cull the right tools and technologies to accurately mensurate these organisms and their environments? When scientists consider which tools and technologies to apply to answer their questions about the ocean, they accept to residuum the toll of the measurement with the information they will get from the measurement. Here, nosotros depict some of the different methods that scientists might employ to study living things in the bounding main, from nets or bottles used to collect water samples that are brought back to the boat or the laboratory, to robots that swim upward and downwards and collect information about the deeper ocean, to remote satellites that send signals dorsum to Earth well-nigh the surface of the ocean. There are fifty-fifty ways for kids to go involved and assistance with body of water ascertainment!

Organisms in the Ocean Are Difficult to Study!

The ocean covers more than 72% of the Earth's surface and averages virtually three,700 m in depth. How could we always attempt to study such a large volume of water that contains then many different living things?

Oceanographers (scientists who study the sea) use a number of dissimilar tools to written report the ocean, spanning from satellites that can observe the body of water'southward surface daily, to research vessels (in that location are currently about 400 vessels operated by l dissimilar countries [one]), to robots that sink and rise periodically and are equipped with sensors (at that place are about 5,000 robots in apply at present). Most of these tools measure physical properties of the body of water, similar the temperature and saltiness of the water, with nearly one in ten besides collecting information about life in the sea.

The ocean contains organisms of all sizes, from tiny organisms of 0.two–20 μm that are likewise small to run into with our eyes (1 μm is 1 millionth of a meter, m), such equally bacteria, most phytoplankton , and small zooplankton , upwardly to larger organisms of 0.2–twenty m, such as near fish and marine mammals. The mass of the tiny organisms is approximately the same as the mass of the organisms nosotros can see [ii]—there are lots of tiny organisms in the ocean! For example, in a teaspoon of ocean water, there are nigh v million bacteria and about 250,000 phytoplankton (organisms that utilise lite to grow), and maybe 1 large zooplankton (zooplankton consume other organisms; some await like the grapheme "Plankton" on Spongebob). The size difference between zooplankton and bacteria is like the size difference betwixt the Eiffel Tower and a human! While tiny bacteria tin multiply every few hours, large zooplankton need to find a mate to reproduce and live for about a year.

Different Methods Are Needed to Written report Different Ocean Organisms

Since the organisms that alive in the ocean come in many sizes, from very tiny to very big, oceanographers cannot apply the aforementioned methods to report all body of water organisms. For example, tiny phytoplankton, which are found everywhere in the sunlit ocean, are the source of energy for the marine food web. Phytoplankton serve as food for other organisms and thus are important to report. Just oceanographers cannot study phytoplankton the aforementioned way that they would study a meridian predator like an Orca whale, for instance. While phytoplankton are always everywhere in the sunlit ocean, at that place may only exist a unmarried whale in a whole bay at any ane time. Phytoplankton are as well small to count with our naked eyes, only a large whale would be easy to spot without any other tools.

To study the smallest organisms, such as bacteria, phytoplankton, and zooplankton, oceanographers use boats to collect water samples to study in the lab. They might await at these organisms with microscopes or use a special laser beam to effigy out the number, size, and type of cells present in the sample. In the same way that humans might look at their own Dna to notice out where their ancestors came from and what they might have looked similar, scientists look at the genetic textile of the organisms collected from ocean water samples to notice out what type of organisms are in the water. To do this, scientists need to decode the genetic material to see if it matches other known organisms whose genetic codes accept been previously studied and put in a library of genetic codes.

DNA tin can also provide information about the character of the organisms collected from the ecosystem—similar whether or not the organisms can survive without oxygen. Water samples may also be analyzed for special substances contained in sure organisms. For example, oceanographers often wait for a molecule called chlorophyll a in their h2o samples. Chlorophyll a is a pigment used by phytoplankton to collect sunlight for energy, simply like trees do on land. The corporeality of chlorophyll a in the water is one measure of how many phytoplankton are in the h2o.

Phytoplankton in the surface waters of the ocean bear on the colour of the h2o (Figure 1). Satellites looking down on Earth take pictures of the surface of the sea. Scientists use these pictures to map the distribution of phytoplankton. Even though they are too pocket-sized to see with our eyes, a large number of phytoplankton (chosen a bloom) occupying a large area can clearly be seen from space.

• Figure 1 - A color photo of the ocean taken from a satellite, showing swirls and eddies with widely dissimilar concentrations of chlorophyll a, a pigment shared by all phytoplankton.
• The areas that are greenest represent areas with more than chlorophyll a, hence more than phytoplankton. The text below the photograph describes the large differences in concentrations of the diverse types of planktonic organisms nowadays in one teaspoon of ocean water. The satellite image is from: https://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov/gallery/.

To written report larger organisms, such as the zooplankton that eat phytoplankton, scientists deploy cameras from research vessels, robots, or submarines. These cameras have pictures of the organisms present in the water. Bounding main water is a skilful transmitter of sound. Oceanographers use acoustic sensors, which send a pulse of sound, and listen for its render, to map the distributions of zooplankton and fish. This method works considering these organisms besprinkle the sound back to the sensor differently, depending on their size and shape. Listening for creature sounds is another manner to study the distribution of organisms that produce sounds, such as whales. Whales have been known to "talk" to each other over thousands of kilometers!

Finally, nets are as well used to collect organisms from different depths (Figure 2). This method is like to the way a line-fishing boat catches fish in the sea. The nets have a mesh, which is fabricated up of many holes stitched together. Depending on the size of the holes, different marine organisms are defenseless in the nets, varying in size from phytoplankton to big fish.

• Figure 2 - Dissimilar methods must be used to collect samples of ocean organisms of varying sizes. When we comport a holistic sampling .
• Tiny organisms, like viruses, are nerveless using dissimilar types of filtration systems to remove them from bounding main water. Zooplankton, which are more than a million times bigger than viruses, are collected using nets deployed in the ocean. This graph shows the amount of water (on the left axis) needed to be filtered to collect organisms of different sizes and types (on the lesser axis). Above the organisms, pictures of the specific filtration systems and water sources (whether bottles or nets) denoted with A–East are displayed. From Karsenti et al. [3].

Robots Can Be Used to Collect Information From the Body of water

Traditionally, oceanographers studied ocean organisms using boats equipped with nets and h2o collectors (big bottles that can close at a given depth, so h2o from the deep ocean tin can come up to the surface undisturbed). Likewise, automatic sensors tin can be deployed from ships or from robots. Like unlike types of boats, marine robots use different strategies to movement effectually. Some marine robots movement using motors, some have sails, and some modify their depth in the water by changing their buoyancy (whether they sink or bladder). Currently, there are thousands of these marine robots roaming around the sea (for pictures of some of them encounter Figure 3), many of which send their data back to shore through satellites. In this way, oceanographers tin can observe the ocean while staying on shore.

• Effigy 3 - Examples of sampling platforms.
• Autonomous (contained) platforms include Gliders (a), moving ridge gliders (b), marine organisms with fastened sensor, such as seals (c), Surface drifters (d), sail drones (east), and profiling floats (f). All of these contain sensors to study the sea and take no motor (the sensors and communication devices are powered by batteries). Satellites monitor the energy reflected or emitted from the Globe (g). Ships with nets and other sampling organisation collect samples for lab analysis (h) while fixed mooring instrumented with sensors collect data at their location (i). Photo credits for figure: (a) ALPS 2 study (https://alps-bounding main.us/documents/). (b) A. Snyder, in ALPS II written report. (c) D. Costa, in ALPS II study. (d) ALPS II report. (due east) Saildrone Inc., in ALPS Ii study. (f) Due east. Boss, University of Maine. (grand) NASA PACE project photo gallery (https://step.oceansciences.org/gallery.htm). (h) NASA PACE project photograph gallery (https://pace.oceansciences.org/gallery.htm). (i) https://oceanobservatories.org/.

To sympathise why the numbers of some organisms vary in different parts of the body of water, oceanographers collect a variety of data from the surroundings. These information include the water temperature and amount of light at the depth where the sample was collected, the presence and amount of predators, besides every bit the presence of chemicals that may affect the organisms. Some of these chemicals, like dissolved nutrients, are benign to phytoplankton, and act like fertilizer does for plants on land. Others, like those chemicals that make the water acidic, may be bad for organisms. In acidic water, some organisms volition have a hard time building a crush, for the same reason a tooth dissolves in a glass of Coca Cola.

To study the interactions between the organisms present in a certain area of the ocean, oceanographers need to take a holistic sampling approach. A holistic arroyo ways that every office of the food web and the surround are considered together. To look at an area of the ocean holistically, all parts of the food web demand to exist measured at the same time. For instance, if oceanographers determine that phytoplankton in a certain surface area have plenty light and nutrients to abound, it would be difficult to explain why the number of phytoplankton was not increasing, unless at that place are also measurements of the number of herbivores that are eating the phytoplankton equally they grow.

Challenges to Studying Marine Organisms

Considering the ocean is so large and because it changes over fourth dimension, studying marine organisms tin can present many challenges for oceanographers. I difficulty that scientists run into when trying to study the ocean is chosen biofouling. Biofouling happens when organisms colonize (get-go to grow on) sensors and sampling platforms, resulting in bad measurements. Organisms in the ocean are ofttimes looking for a surfaces to grow on, and oceanographic sensors provide a perfect identify for seaweed or barnacles to grow.

Another difficulty is the fact that organisms, such as fish are attracted to structures or lights in the ocean, which might perhaps affect the measurements from those instruments. Fisherman know that the fish are attracted to these places, and will come up to fish near sea moorings. This effect demonstrates a challenge in oceanography: when we measure the bounding main, we one-time change it.

Considering the corporeality of coin available to do oceanographic studies is limited, scientists need to think carefully nearly the questions they are asking and how they can go the correct information to best answer these questions. A good scientific report will consider the characteristics of the organisms of involvement. Oceanographers may ask questions like:

• How much water should I analyze to know the concentration of Organism Ten? If I only count 1 bucketful of water, will I get enough organisms to gauge how many organisms are in this whole bay?
• For how long will the measurements I made hold true? If I took this sample one week ago, are the same organisms even so in the water today, or have their numbers changed?
• How much of the ocean does this measurement stand for? Can I say something about the whole ocean with my measurement, or but near the bay that I studied?

Answering questions like these is central to deciding how much, how frequently, and how far autonomously measurements should be made. This strategy will ensure that research coin is well spent. The skillful news is that developments in technology over the years have helped drive down the costs of some of these measurement methods, as well equally increase the corporeality of information oceanographers can gather from ane measurement. If scientists cannot reply their enquiry questions without a specific measurement and this measurement can only be made from a gunkhole, then they should inquire for time and coin to go to sea on a inquiry vessel. But maybe their question can be answered using satellite data that is collected every mean solar day all over the globe and a boat is non needed. This solution could possibly salve money.

How Can Nosotros Improve Measurements of Organisms in the Ocean?

To further expand body of water measurements, scientists need help. Some recent programs take non-oceanographers (including kids) taking measurements of the sea. These "citizen scientific discipline" programs have the potential to greatly increase our ability to sample the ocean. Many people intendance deeply for the sea—they love going to the beach, swimming in the bounding main, and appreciating the animals that live in the body of water. The ocean is enormous, and at that place are but then many oceanographers (including the robots!) that can sample the ocean at a time. So, we need the help of people who care about the bounding main to collect samples and share observations virtually the body of water. Useful data can even be gathered by surfers (https://smartfin.org/)! If you are interested to bring together such a citizen science program, to help oceanographers collect information about the sea, take a look at the following links to see how you tin help!

https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/denizen-scientific discipline/ or

https://planktonplanet.org/ or

https://www.whoi.edu/what-we-do/educate/k-12-students-and-teachers/resource-for-teachers-citizen-scientific discipline-projects/ or

https://medium.com/@TheW2O/denizen-scientific discipline-and-the-ocean-4dff1b7e0d84

Glossary

Satellite: ↑ An object in space that rotates effectually the Globe and on which sensors can exist attached to observe the Earth.

Robot: ↑ An object that has some control of its own motion and on which sensors tin be attached.

Sensor: ↑ An object with electronic components that records signals generated from the environment around it.

Phytoplankton: ↑ Microscopic, single-celled organisms that use sunlight, dissolved gases, and nutrients for energy and to build cellular material.

Zooplankton: ↑ Animals that swallow microbes for energy and to build cellular textile.

Holistic Sampling: ↑ A method of sampling where all part of a system of involvement are sampled at the aforementioned time.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absenteeism of any commercial or fiscal relationships that could exist construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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References

[i] ↑ Dinsmore, R. P. 2001. "Ships," in Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences, 2nd Edn., ed J. H. Steele (Academic Press). p. 409–xviii. doi: 10.1016/B978-012374473-9.00299-X

[2] ↑ Sheldon, R. W., Prakash, A., and Sutcliffe, W. H. 1972. The size distribution of particles in the ocean. Limnol. Oceanogr. 17:327–xl.

[three] ↑ Karsenti, E., Acinas, Due south. G., Bork, P., Bowler, C., De Vargas, C., Raes, J., et al. 2011. A holistic approach to marine eco-systems biology. PLoS Biol. 9:e1001177. doi: ten.1371/periodical.pbio.1001177

Source: https://kids.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frym.2020.00003

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